---
title: "Package demo: Hidden Markov Model"
description: >
  Using ino for HMM likelihood optimization
output: rmarkdown::html_vignette
vignette: >
  %\VignetteEncoding{UTF-8}
  %\VignetteIndexEntry{Package demo: Hidden Markov Model}
  %\VignetteEngine{knitr::rmarkdown}
editor_options: 
  chunk_output_type: console
bibliography: ref.bib
link-citations: true
---

```{r setup, include = FALSE, purl = FALSE}
knitr::opts_chunk$set(
  collapse  = TRUE,
  comment   = "#>",
  fig.align = "center",
  fig.path  = "figures/hmm-",
  fig.dim   = c(8, 6), 
  out.width = "75%",
  # all optimizations are pre-computed to save building time of the vignette
  eval      = FALSE,
  message   = FALSE,
  warning   = FALSE
)
library("ino")
if ((eval_Nop_hmm <- isTRUE(requireNamespace("fHMM", quietly = TRUE)))) {
  library("fHMM")
  data("Nop_hmm")
  set.seed(1)
} 
```

HMMs are statistical models used to explain systems that can only be observed indirectly through a sequence of outputs, and have unobservable hidden states. They consist of two processes, 

1. a Markov process that describes the hidden states, and 

2. an observable process that describes the outputs produced by the system, where the probability of observing an output at a given time depends only on the current state. 

State-switching models like HMMs are commonly used in speech recognition, animal movement modeling, and finance. For more technical details about HMMs and their scope of application, see @Zucchini:2016.

Numerical likelihood optimization is a prominent method for fitting HMMs to empirical data. In this vignette we describe the workflow of using the `{ino}` package for analyzing the initialization effect in this optimization task. 

## Application to financial data

The example data set considered throughout this vignette covers a time series of log returns from the [German stock index DAX](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DAX) over 30 years. The DAX closing prices are freely accessible via [Yahoo Finance](https://finance.yahoo.com) and can be downloaded via the `download_data()` function from the `{fHMM}` package [@Oelschlaeger:2024]. We transform them to log-returns using the `{dplyr}` package [@Wickham:2023]:

```{r download dax data, eval = eval_Nop_hmm}
library("fHMM")
library("dplyr")
dax <- download_data(symbol = "^GDAXI", from = "1990-01-01", to = "2020-01-01") %>%
  as_tibble() %>%
  reframe(
    date = as.Date(Date, format = "%Y-%m-%d"),
    logreturn = c(NA, diff(log(Close), lag = 1))
  ) %>%
  filter(!is.na(logreturn)) %>%
  print()
```

```{r, purl = FALSE, echo = FALSE, eval = !eval_Nop_hmm}
cat("Output not shown because the 'fHMM' namespace is unavailable.")
```

```{r dax details, eval = TRUE, purl = FALSE, include = FALSE}
if (eval_Nop_hmm) {
  nrow_dax <- nrow(dax)
  range_dax <- paste(c("from", "to"), round(range(dax$logreturn), 1), collapse = " ")
} else {
  nrow_dax <- 7475
  range_dax <- "from -0.1 to 0.1"
}
```

The time series looks as follows:

```{r plot-dax-data, eval = eval_Nop_hmm}
library("ggplot2")
ggplot(dax, aes(x = date, y = logreturn)) +
  geom_point() +
  geom_line() +
  scale_x_date() +
  scale_y_continuous(labels = scales::label_percent())
```

```{r, purl = FALSE, echo = FALSE, eval = !eval_Nop_hmm}
cat("Output not shown because the 'fHMM' namespace is unavailable.")
```

As the log-returns are continuous and can take both negative and positive values, we consider an HMM with Gaussian state-dependent distributions --- note that some applications instead use t-distributions to also model the kurtosis [@Oelschlaeger:2021].

## Likelihood optimization

We consider a 2-state (`states = 2`) Gaussian-HMM (`sdds = "normal"`) here to model bearish and bullish market periods. This results in six parameters (`npar = 6`) to be estimated (to be optimized, respectively):

- two identified parameters for the transition probability matrix,
- two for the means of the state-dependent distributions,
- two for the standard deviations of the state-dependent distributions.

The likelihood function `ll_hmm()` is provided by the `{fHMM}` package. The argument `negative = TRUE` indicates that we minimize the negative log-likelihood.

```{r define ino object}
library("ino")
Nop_hmm <- Nop$new(
  f = fHMM::ll_hmm, 
  npar = 6, 
  observations = dax$logreturn,
  sdds = "normal",
  states = 2, 
  negative = TRUE
)
```

In this example, we optimize using the optimizer `stats::nlm()` (see the introductory vignette for more details on how to specify optimizers):

```{r set optimizer}
Nop_hmm$set_optimizer(optimizeR::Optimizer$new("stats::nlm"))
```

### Parallel optimization and progress updates

For convenience, The `{ino}` package supports parallel computation of optimization runs based on the `{future}` package [@Bengtsson:2021] and printing progress messages based on the `{progressr}` package [@Bengtsson:2024]. 

For example, calling

```{r parallel setting, purl = FALSE}
future::plan(future::multisession, workers = 10)
```

uses parallel computation in 10 parallel R sessions, and calling

```{r progress setting, purl = FALSE}
progressr::handlers(global = TRUE)
```

prints a progress bar.

### Random initialization

Choosing random starting values is a first naive initialization approach, which can be tested as follows:

```{r random initialization}
Nop_hmm$
  initialize_random(runs = 100)$
  optimize(optimization_label = "random_naive")
```

The method `$initialize_random()` selects `runs = 100` random initial values, which are drawn from a standard normal distribution by default. Next, the `$optimize()` method initiates optimization of the likelihood function starting from these values. The results are labeled as `"random_naive"` to facilitate comparison later.

Instead of drawing initial values from a standard normal distribution, users can define a custom sampler function, for example:

```{r initialization sampler}
sampler <- function() {
  c(stats::runif(2, -2, -1), stats::rnorm(2), log(stats::runif(2, 0.5, 2)))
}
```

This sampler is based on the following ideas:

- As the first two starting values belong to the off-diagonal of the transition probability matrix, we draw starting values from a $\mathcal{U}(-2,-1)$ distribution --- the likelihood function uses the multinomial logit link to ensure that the probabilities are between $0$ and $1$, a value of $-1.5$ correspond to probabilities of staying in state 1 or 2 of about $80\%$. 
- For the two means, we draw two random numbers from the standard normal distribution, as the time series above indicates that the log-returns vary around zero. 
- The starting values for the standard deviations are drawn from a $\mathcal{U}(0.5,2)$ distribution (note that the likelihood function exponentiates the standard deviations as they are constrained to be positive, and hence we log-transform the starting values).

The `optimize()` method then performs `runs = 100` optimizations with starting values drawn from the specified distributions:

```{r sampler initialization}
Nop_hmm$
  initialize_random(sampler = sampler, runs = 100)$
  optimize(optimization_label = "random")
```

### Grid initialization with educated guesses

Another initialization strategy that closely relates to specifying a custom sampler for the initial values is to make "educated guesses" and to consider a grid of these values as initialization. This can be implemented via the `$initialize_grid()` method, where and `lower` and `upper` limits and `breaks` can be specified. Here, we consider a grid of 64 starting values that fall in the ranges considered above:

```{r optimization of educated guesses}
Nop_hmm$
  initialize_grid(
    lower = c(-2, -2, -0.1, -0.1, log(0.1), log(0.1)),
    upper = c(-1, -1, 0.1, 0.1, log(1), log(1)),
    breaks = 2
  )$
  optimize(optimization_label = "educated_guess")
```

### Subset initialization

Since the data set is large, containing a total of `r nrow_dax` log-return observations, it might be beneficial to obtain initial values by first fitting the model to a data subset. If the data subset is chosen small enough, estimation with the subset will be much faster. On the other hand, if the data subset is chosen large enough to still contain enough information, the estimates on the subset will already lie close to the estimates for the full model and provide good initial values for the full optimization.

To illustrate the subset initialization strategy, we consider the first quarter of observations, which can be extracted using the `$reduce_argument()` method with arguments `how = "first"` and `proportion = 0.25`. The starting values for the optimizations on this subset are drawn from the `sampler()` function defined above. We again use `$optimize()` to fit the HMM, but now to the data subset. With `$initialize_continue()`, we then use the estimates obtained from the optimization on the subset as initial values to fit the model to the entire data set. 

Finally, the entire data set is recovered via `$fixed_argument("reset", argument_name = "observations")`. If we were to skip this step, all future optimization runs would be made on the subset.

```{r subset initialization}
Nop_hmm$
  reduce_argument("observations", how = "first", proportion = 0.25)$
  initialize_random(sampler = sampler, runs = 100)$
  optimize(optimization_label = "reduced")$
  fixed_argument("reset", argument_name = "observations")$
  initialize_continue("reduced")$
  optimize(optimization_label = "initialized_reduced")
```

## Standardize initialization

The considered log-returns range `r range_dax`. Optimization might be facilitated by standardizing the data first. This idea can be tested via the `$standardize_argument()` method:

```{r standardize initialization 1}
Nop_hmm$standardize_argument("observations")
```

The values used for the standardization can be extracted as follows:

```{r standardize initialization values}
observations <- Nop_hmm$fixed_argument("get", argument_name = "observations")
(center <- attr(observations, "center"))
(scale <- attr(observations, "scale"))
```

Optimization proceeds as usual:

```{r standardize initialization 2}
Nop_hmm$
  initialize_random(sampler = sampler, runs = 100)$
  optimize(optimization_label = "standardized")$
  fixed_argument(action = "reset", argument_name = "observations")
```

Note that the results obtained on the standardized optimization problem could be back-transformed via:

```{r transform}
transform <- function(x) {
  c(x[1:2], x[3:4] * scale + center, log(exp(x[3:4]) * scale + center))
}
```

## Evaluating the optimization runs

### Global versus local optima

Selecting the starting values for the HMM likelihood optimization is a well-known issue, as poor starting values may likely result in local optima. We thus first evaluate the optimizations by comparing the likelihood values at convergence, which can be displayed using the `$optima()` method. Here,

- `sort_by = "value"` sorts the table by function value,
- `digitis = 0` ignores any decimal places.

```{r overview of optima, eval = eval_Nop_hmm}
Nop_hmm$optima(sort_by_value = TRUE, digits = 0)
```

```{r, purl = FALSE, echo = FALSE, eval = !eval_Nop_hmm}
cat("Output not shown because the 'fHMM' namespace is unavailable.")
```

```{r get number of converged runs, include = FALSE, eval = eval_Nop_hmm}
optima <- Nop_hmm$optima(sort_by_value = TRUE, digits = 0)
global <- optima |> arrange(value) |> slice(1) |> pull(n)
total <- sum(optima$n)
local <- total - global
```

```{r optima details, eval = !eval_Nop_hmm, purl = FALSE, include = FALSE}
global <- 168
total <- 364
local <- 196
```

The frequency table indicates that `r global` out of `r total` runs converged to the smallest (negative) log-likelihood value, which appears to be the global optimum (note that these are the negative log-likelihood values). However, in `r local` runs we apparently got stuck in local optima.

Using `$results`, we now can investigate the optimum values (`"value"`), the corresponding parameter vectors (`"parameter"`), and the optimization times (`"seconds"`) of all runs (here, only the first are shown):

```{r summary of results, eval = eval_Nop_hmm}
Nop_hmm$results |> select(value, parameter, seconds)
```

```{r, purl = FALSE, echo = FALSE, eval = !eval_Nop_hmm}
cat("Output not shown because the 'fHMM' namespace is unavailable.")
```

The final parameter estimates can be accessed:

```{r best parameter, eval = eval_Nop_hmm}
Nop_hmm$minimum
```

```{r, purl = FALSE, echo = FALSE, eval = !eval_Nop_hmm}
cat("Output not shown because the 'fHMM' namespace is unavailable.")
```

Next, we can compute the proportion of runs that lead to the apparent global optimum as follows (note that the standardized initialization approach cannot be compared to the other approaches here and is filtered via the `.original` identifier):

```{r proportion of converged runs, eval = eval_Nop_hmm}
Nop_hmm$results |> 
  filter(.original) |>
  mutate(global_optimum = value < -22445) |>
  group_by(.optimization_label) |>
  summarise(proportion = mean(global_optimum, na.rm = TRUE))
```

```{r, purl = FALSE, echo = FALSE, eval = !eval_Nop_hmm}
cat("Output not shown because the 'fHMM' namespace is unavailable.")
```

### Optimization time

The `autoplot()` method can be used to investigate the optimization times across initialization strategies by setting `group_by = "optimization"`:

```{r optimization-time, eval = eval_Nop_hmm}
Nop_hmm$results |> autoplot(group_by = "optimization")
```

```{r, purl = FALSE, echo = FALSE, eval = !eval_Nop_hmm}
cat("Output not shown because the 'fHMM' namespace is unavailable.")
```

We can also compute summary statistics of interest, like the median computation time or standard deviation per strategy:

```{r summary statistics, eval = eval_Nop_hmm}
Nop_hmm$results |>
  group_by(.optimization_label) %>%
  summarise(
    median_seconds = median(seconds, na.rm = TRUE),
    sd_seconds = sd(seconds, na.rm = TRUE)
  ) %>%
  arrange(median_seconds)
```

```{r, purl = FALSE, echo = FALSE, eval = !eval_Nop_hmm}
cat("Output not shown because the 'fHMM' namespace is unavailable.")
```

The subset and the standardize approach can improve the median optimization time by a factor of about 2 in this example compared to the random initialization approach. Standardization also reduces standard deviation in computation time, indicating more stable optimization.

## References
